Contributions
- Proposes a two-dimensional framework separating fake news as a genre (deliberate disinformation) from its use as a political label (term weaponization)
- Identifies three key characteristics of the fake news genre: low facticity, journalistic format, and intention to deceive
- Distinguishes fake news from related concepts (misinformation, disinformation, propaganda, rumors, conspiracy theories)
- Conducts comprehensive literature review on empirical research into fake news creation, effects, and countermeasures
- Articulates a research agenda highlighting understudied dimensions: the label's prevalence and effects on journalism legitimacy and media trust
Method
The paper reviews available empirical research on fake news through synthesis of journalism, political science, and communication literature. The authors organize the fake news genre using a three-pillar model grounded in existing definitions: messages must be low in facticity (false information), presented in journalistic format (structural elements mimicking legitimate news), and created with intention to deceive (ruling out satire and simple mistakes).
The framework also examines how "fake news" functions as a label in political discourse — used by political actors to delegitimize mainstream media outlets. The authors trace this labeling phenomenon to broader trends in political polarization, populism, and declining trust in institutions.
Results
The paper maps empirical evidence across three research categories: (1) studies on how fake news occurs in public discourse, showing it spreads through social media and targets partisan audiences; (2) studies on effects, finding limited but growing evidence that exposure affects credibility judgments and trust in media; (3) studies on countermeasures, revealing fact-checking's limited effectiveness and automated detection methods still in early development.
The authors show that the fake news label has become globally weaponized for political purposes, particularly by populist parties and politicians attacking journalism's legitimacy. They document this phenomenon across the U.S., Western Europe, and other democracies.
Notes
This paper provides crucial conceptual clarity by separating the fake news genre (a type of content) from the fake news label (a rhetorical weapon). This distinction helps explain why research finds inconsistent effects — effects of actual disinformation differ from effects of being labeled as "fake news." The extensive literature review and well-articulated research agenda make this a foundational reference for the field. Key weakness: the empirical research reviewed is heavily U.S.-focused, leaving important questions about fake news in other political contexts and journalism traditions unaddressed.